By: Dr Rita Mairembam *
Churachandpur district, situated in the South Western part of the state, is the largest district covering an area of 4,570 sq. kms. The district is composed of 15 different communities such as Hmar, Paite, Thadou, Vaiphei, Zou etc with a population of 2,23,609, according to the 2001 census. Out of this, the female population is 1,13,967.
From the early history of Manipur we found that women were not confined within the four walls. They were free to move outside the house. Paite women are hard working. Women not only perform household duties, they contribute a lot in the maintenance of the family eco-nomy.
Besides household activities they participate actively in Jhum cultivation. They are engaged in weaving, collecting firewood. In a word we can say what not they have contributed. But what cre-dit do they get? Do they have any say in taking major decision for the family and state as a whole?
A woman possess nothing though she did most of the work. Their work is not considered as income generating works. In Paite society a woman is regarded as subordinate and inferior to a man in the estimation, concept and treatment of the male members. Why do women become subordinate to men?
Ethnic Dresses of Paite Woman.
There are many factors responsible for it. Traditional norms and beliefs placed women in a subordinate and inferior position in the family and society. But the most important factors for making women subordinate are economic dependance and non-participation in the decision making.
The Paite society is a patriarchal society and so it is male oriented and male dominated society. The society generally based on patriarchal values considers women only as subordinates, not as equals. Moreover they are strictly bound by customary laws. Paite women have no right to participate in the village administration, nor do they have the right to participate in the Indongta (family council).
They also have no right to inherit parental property. But with the passage of time there have been some changes in the power structure of the tribal society. Some of the changes can be studied in two aspects i.e. inheritance of property and administrative system.
Inheritance of Property: In a patriarchal society generally the right of inheritance of property goes to the father-line (male-line). There are two types of succession and inheritance of parental property in the traditional Paite society, Primogeniture and Ultimogeniture.
According to Primogeniture, the eldest son has the sole right to inherit the property and according to Ultimogeniture, the youngest son inherits the property. Even an illegitimate son can inherit his father’s property in case there is no other male issue of the father.
But a daughter is not allowed to inherit the parental property. The only occasion she can get some of her father’s property is in her marriage. At the time of marriage she is given puanpui/puanbu (a thick cotton mattress), tools (spade, a traditional agricultural implement), Lalpi (a basket made of cane with cover) and Slambu (tool for weeding) etc.
Besides, the daughter of a well-to-do family gets various kinds of things as Moutam (things to be distributed among her husband’s relatives). But now they are given many items like cot, almirah, utensils, television etc and even house and land by well to do families.
Moreover women started inheriting parental properties. e.g. Smt. Kim (not real name) of Salem Veng, inherited her parental properties. But she faced lots of objection from her relatives. Finally she entered into a negotiation with her relatives to find an amicable solution.
The reason for getting this right might be due to the introduction of the Manipur Land Revenue (MLR) and Land Reform (LR) Act, 1960 which was extended to 89 villages out of 225 villages in Churachandpur district. According to MLR and LR Act, 1960 every person who at the time of commencement of the act, holds only land from the Government for agricultural purposes, whether as a settlement holder on as a pattadar, his successor-in-interest, shall subject to the provisions of sub-section (2) of section 99 became the owner there of as and from such commencements.
Before the MLR & LR Act, 1960 was introduced in the hill areas the traditional land holding system was based on the principle of community ownership under the custodianship of the chief and was also based on customary laws of the village community. Therefore it might not be possible to give immovable property to daughters who left the parental house after marriage. Now the system of land ownership has been transferred from community to individual in these 89 villages of Churachandpur district.
Women have the right to inherit the property of her husband after the death of the husband. But Smt Lucy (not real name) faced lots of objection from the relatives of her husband as she has no son though she inherited all her husband’s property. She now decided to distribute her property among her daughters since the property is in her name ( i,e Pattadar) under the MLR & LR Act, 1960.
Those women who inherit properties are not aware of their legal rights. They inherit with an understanding and negotiation. In fact, if there is any objection from any person they can go to the law court and fight for their rights. But it is possible only to those areas where MLR & LR act is in force i,e Pattaland. Thus there is a change from the traditional laws of inheritance and gives an opportunity to women.
Administration: Paite administration system is authoritarian. The hill chief is the authority or head of the village and his position is hereditary. The chief is assisted by a Village Council consisting of people appointed or nominated by the chief.
No women is allowed in the family council i.e. Indong-ta and council of members of the village. If the chief has no male issue the nea-rest male kin will succeed him. Thus women have no right to participate in the village administration.
In the hill administrative system there are many changes. After Indian independence, an act for the administration of the hill areas, called the Manipur State Hill Peoples (Administration) Regulation Act 1947 was introduced. The act provided for the establishment and regulation of village authorities in the hill areas.
The Village Authority consisted of a Khullakpa (Hill chief), one representative from each clan and the village elders. The Hill Peoples Regulation Act, 1947 also envisaged a higher authority called the Circle Authority. A Circle Authority consisted of a circle officer and a council of five members elected by the village authority in the circle.
The Parliament passed another Act called the Manipur Village Authorities (Hill Areas) Act, 1956. The members were elected on the basis of adult franchise initiating people’s representation and thus introduced the democratic system of election. This act imposed certain limitations on the power and function of the hill chiefs that led towards the transformation of authoritarian system to democratic system.
The Manipur Hill Areas Acquisition of Chief’s Rights Act, 1967 made an attempt to abolish the chieftainship in the hill areas by paying compensation but the chieftainship still continues with all its rights and privileges.
In 1973 the Manipur (Hill Areas) District Council Act, 1971 was implemented and according to the act the hill areas of Manipur were divided into six autonomous districts with a District Council in each. Each District Council consisted of 18 elected members and 2 no-minated members. But in the changing scenario none of the women ever participated.
However, as the population has grown four folds in the district headquarters of Churachandpur, the Govt of Manipur declared the village 29 a notified areas under the order no. 24/56(s) 59-(NA) of 26/4161 covering an area of 1.83 sq km and in fulfilment of the criteria adopted in the 1961 census, Churachandpur became an urban place.
Thus small town committee was also extended in the area and elections were held in 1978. In the Small Town Committee election one woman called Smt. Vanlalengi was the nominated member. Nevertheless women’s participation in the process of administration has been thoroughly low.
With the increase in the size of the population and the size of the town as well, the administration of the town managed by Small Town Committee was found inadequate and the Government of Mani-pur declared Municipal Act, 1976 on the town and upgraded Churachandpur to Municipality in 1980. But the town area has been under the Jurisdiction of the Autonomous District Councils (in Manipur Hills) Act 1971.
Therefore there was controversies over this. The introduction of Municipality Act, 1976 on the town was strongly debated and because of the controversies the first Municipal election, 1983 was boycotted by the town dwellers. As a result the government considering all the problems and difficulties and with the recommendation of Hill Area Committee, withdrew the act from the town on 1st March 1988.
The assets & liabilities of Municipality were transferred to the Churachandpur Autonomous District Council. But there are no proper provisions for the maintenance of town administration in the present District Council. Thus, at the grassroots level of the village administration women got no chance to participate but very surprisingly in the Assembly and Parliamentary elections Paite and non-Paite women contested election and even got elected and participated in the political process.
Some of those who contested the assembly elections are T. Kholly, Lhingjaneng, Manleinuing, Hathoi, T. Ngaizanem etc. In the 1998 parliamentary election Kim Gangte was elected. The reason for non-participation of women in the village administration may be the hangover of the customary laws of the society.
The 73rd & 74th Amendment, 1992 & 1993 did not extend to the hill areas of Manipur which could have given an opportunity to join the decision making process at the grass root level since 1/3rd of the total seats are kept reserved for women in the local bodies.
It may be concluded that with the changing trend from authoritarian to democratic system of administration and with the introduction of the MLR & LR Act, 1960 there is a great change in the power structure of the traditional tribal society.
The absolute power of the hill chief degraded considerably in the Churachandpur town area. Because of this transformation, there are changes in the position and role of the women who had otherwise a subordinate position. Still they are left far behind compared to other general women.
The reason may be lack of education, lack of political consciousness and lack of awareness of individual and legal rights etc. Therefore, to improve the status of women, education should be given to women and it is necessary to make them aware of their rights.
It is also necessary to modify the customary laws. Social legislation can do nothing to change a society in which traditional customs and taboos are deep rooted.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Dr Rita Mairembam wrote this article for The Sangai Express . This article was webcasted on September 21st, 2007
www.e-pao.com
Churachandpur district, situated in the South Western part of the state, is the largest district covering an area of 4,570 sq. kms. The district is composed of 15 different communities such as Hmar, Paite, Thadou, Vaiphei, Zou etc with a population of 2,23,609, according to the 2001 census. Out of this, the female population is 1,13,967.
From the early history of Manipur we found that women were not confined within the four walls. They were free to move outside the house. Paite women are hard working. Women not only perform household duties, they contribute a lot in the maintenance of the family eco-nomy.
Besides household activities they participate actively in Jhum cultivation. They are engaged in weaving, collecting firewood. In a word we can say what not they have contributed. But what cre-dit do they get? Do they have any say in taking major decision for the family and state as a whole?
A woman possess nothing though she did most of the work. Their work is not considered as income generating works. In Paite society a woman is regarded as subordinate and inferior to a man in the estimation, concept and treatment of the male members. Why do women become subordinate to men?
Ethnic Dresses of Paite Woman.
There are many factors responsible for it. Traditional norms and beliefs placed women in a subordinate and inferior position in the family and society. But the most important factors for making women subordinate are economic dependance and non-participation in the decision making.
The Paite society is a patriarchal society and so it is male oriented and male dominated society. The society generally based on patriarchal values considers women only as subordinates, not as equals. Moreover they are strictly bound by customary laws. Paite women have no right to participate in the village administration, nor do they have the right to participate in the Indongta (family council).
They also have no right to inherit parental property. But with the passage of time there have been some changes in the power structure of the tribal society. Some of the changes can be studied in two aspects i.e. inheritance of property and administrative system.
Inheritance of Property: In a patriarchal society generally the right of inheritance of property goes to the father-line (male-line). There are two types of succession and inheritance of parental property in the traditional Paite society, Primogeniture and Ultimogeniture.
According to Primogeniture, the eldest son has the sole right to inherit the property and according to Ultimogeniture, the youngest son inherits the property. Even an illegitimate son can inherit his father’s property in case there is no other male issue of the father.
But a daughter is not allowed to inherit the parental property. The only occasion she can get some of her father’s property is in her marriage. At the time of marriage she is given puanpui/puanbu (a thick cotton mattress), tools (spade, a traditional agricultural implement), Lalpi (a basket made of cane with cover) and Slambu (tool for weeding) etc.
Besides, the daughter of a well-to-do family gets various kinds of things as Moutam (things to be distributed among her husband’s relatives). But now they are given many items like cot, almirah, utensils, television etc and even house and land by well to do families.
Moreover women started inheriting parental properties. e.g. Smt. Kim (not real name) of Salem Veng, inherited her parental properties. But she faced lots of objection from her relatives. Finally she entered into a negotiation with her relatives to find an amicable solution.
The reason for getting this right might be due to the introduction of the Manipur Land Revenue (MLR) and Land Reform (LR) Act, 1960 which was extended to 89 villages out of 225 villages in Churachandpur district. According to MLR and LR Act, 1960 every person who at the time of commencement of the act, holds only land from the Government for agricultural purposes, whether as a settlement holder on as a pattadar, his successor-in-interest, shall subject to the provisions of sub-section (2) of section 99 became the owner there of as and from such commencements.
Before the MLR & LR Act, 1960 was introduced in the hill areas the traditional land holding system was based on the principle of community ownership under the custodianship of the chief and was also based on customary laws of the village community. Therefore it might not be possible to give immovable property to daughters who left the parental house after marriage. Now the system of land ownership has been transferred from community to individual in these 89 villages of Churachandpur district.
Women have the right to inherit the property of her husband after the death of the husband. But Smt Lucy (not real name) faced lots of objection from the relatives of her husband as she has no son though she inherited all her husband’s property. She now decided to distribute her property among her daughters since the property is in her name ( i,e Pattadar) under the MLR & LR Act, 1960.
Those women who inherit properties are not aware of their legal rights. They inherit with an understanding and negotiation. In fact, if there is any objection from any person they can go to the law court and fight for their rights. But it is possible only to those areas where MLR & LR act is in force i,e Pattaland. Thus there is a change from the traditional laws of inheritance and gives an opportunity to women.
Administration: Paite administration system is authoritarian. The hill chief is the authority or head of the village and his position is hereditary. The chief is assisted by a Village Council consisting of people appointed or nominated by the chief.
No women is allowed in the family council i.e. Indong-ta and council of members of the village. If the chief has no male issue the nea-rest male kin will succeed him. Thus women have no right to participate in the village administration.
In the hill administrative system there are many changes. After Indian independence, an act for the administration of the hill areas, called the Manipur State Hill Peoples (Administration) Regulation Act 1947 was introduced. The act provided for the establishment and regulation of village authorities in the hill areas.
The Village Authority consisted of a Khullakpa (Hill chief), one representative from each clan and the village elders. The Hill Peoples Regulation Act, 1947 also envisaged a higher authority called the Circle Authority. A Circle Authority consisted of a circle officer and a council of five members elected by the village authority in the circle.
The Parliament passed another Act called the Manipur Village Authorities (Hill Areas) Act, 1956. The members were elected on the basis of adult franchise initiating people’s representation and thus introduced the democratic system of election. This act imposed certain limitations on the power and function of the hill chiefs that led towards the transformation of authoritarian system to democratic system.
The Manipur Hill Areas Acquisition of Chief’s Rights Act, 1967 made an attempt to abolish the chieftainship in the hill areas by paying compensation but the chieftainship still continues with all its rights and privileges.
In 1973 the Manipur (Hill Areas) District Council Act, 1971 was implemented and according to the act the hill areas of Manipur were divided into six autonomous districts with a District Council in each. Each District Council consisted of 18 elected members and 2 no-minated members. But in the changing scenario none of the women ever participated.
However, as the population has grown four folds in the district headquarters of Churachandpur, the Govt of Manipur declared the village 29 a notified areas under the order no. 24/56(s) 59-(NA) of 26/4161 covering an area of 1.83 sq km and in fulfilment of the criteria adopted in the 1961 census, Churachandpur became an urban place.
Thus small town committee was also extended in the area and elections were held in 1978. In the Small Town Committee election one woman called Smt. Vanlalengi was the nominated member. Nevertheless women’s participation in the process of administration has been thoroughly low.
With the increase in the size of the population and the size of the town as well, the administration of the town managed by Small Town Committee was found inadequate and the Government of Mani-pur declared Municipal Act, 1976 on the town and upgraded Churachandpur to Municipality in 1980. But the town area has been under the Jurisdiction of the Autonomous District Councils (in Manipur Hills) Act 1971.
Therefore there was controversies over this. The introduction of Municipality Act, 1976 on the town was strongly debated and because of the controversies the first Municipal election, 1983 was boycotted by the town dwellers. As a result the government considering all the problems and difficulties and with the recommendation of Hill Area Committee, withdrew the act from the town on 1st March 1988.
The assets & liabilities of Municipality were transferred to the Churachandpur Autonomous District Council. But there are no proper provisions for the maintenance of town administration in the present District Council. Thus, at the grassroots level of the village administration women got no chance to participate but very surprisingly in the Assembly and Parliamentary elections Paite and non-Paite women contested election and even got elected and participated in the political process.
Some of those who contested the assembly elections are T. Kholly, Lhingjaneng, Manleinuing, Hathoi, T. Ngaizanem etc. In the 1998 parliamentary election Kim Gangte was elected. The reason for non-participation of women in the village administration may be the hangover of the customary laws of the society.
The 73rd & 74th Amendment, 1992 & 1993 did not extend to the hill areas of Manipur which could have given an opportunity to join the decision making process at the grass root level since 1/3rd of the total seats are kept reserved for women in the local bodies.
It may be concluded that with the changing trend from authoritarian to democratic system of administration and with the introduction of the MLR & LR Act, 1960 there is a great change in the power structure of the traditional tribal society.
The absolute power of the hill chief degraded considerably in the Churachandpur town area. Because of this transformation, there are changes in the position and role of the women who had otherwise a subordinate position. Still they are left far behind compared to other general women.
The reason may be lack of education, lack of political consciousness and lack of awareness of individual and legal rights etc. Therefore, to improve the status of women, education should be given to women and it is necessary to make them aware of their rights.
It is also necessary to modify the customary laws. Social legislation can do nothing to change a society in which traditional customs and taboos are deep rooted.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Dr Rita Mairembam wrote this article for The Sangai Express . This article was webcasted on September 21st, 2007
www.e-pao.com
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